1.       Just 1500 Years Ago

        A New Century, A Look Back at History “Journey to the West,” a fantastical novel by Wu Cheng'en of the Ming Dynasty, is a beloved classic. The story centers on the mischievous and courageous Sun Wukong, while even the gluttonous Pigsy, with his commoner's traits, steals the show with his humor. The central figure of the journey, Xuanzang, is relegated to a supporting role, becoming a mere figure who appears from time to time. He is portrayed as a devout, kind, and determined monk, yet also as a gullible, pedantic, and feeble bookworm. 

        On this Vesak Day, a Buddhist holiday, I found myself wondering: who was the real Xuanzang in history? 

2.       Diligent Study, The Pilgrimage to the West 

        Xuanzang, originally named Chen Yi, was born in 602 during the Sui Dynasty. He lost his father at the age of 10 and lived with his two older brothers at the Pure Land Temple in Luoyang, where he studied Buddhist scriptures. In 615, at the age of 13, Xuanzang was ordained as a monk at the Pure Land Temple. In 618, the Sui Dynasty fell, and the Tang Dynasty was established. Xuanzang traveled to Chang'an and Chengdu to further his studies. He was troubled by the inconsistencies in Buddhist teachings across different regions, particularly the conflicting interpretations of the “Dharma Realm” by the Sects of the Absorption Treatise and the Earth Treatise. Yearning for the “Yogacara-bhumi-sastra,” a comprehensive treatise encompassing all three vehicles of Buddhism, in order to resolve his doubts, Xuanzang decided to petition the court to travel to present-day India to seek Buddhist teachings. 

        However, he was denied an "Exit Permit" by the Tang government. Undeterred, in 629, he set off from Chang'an, heading for Tianzhu (India). The historical account of Xuanzang's journey diverges from the fictional portrayal in “Journey to the West.” In the novel, Xuanzang embarks on his pilgrimage at the behest of Emperor Taizong, who even offers him farewell wine and advises him, “Better to cherish a handful of dirt from your homeland than a mountain of gold in a foreign land.” In reality, Xuanzang's journey was fraught with obstacles. He petitioned for permission to travel abroad, but his “travel permit” was denied. Why? Because his journey required passing through Gaochang（高昌） (present-day Turpan, Xinjiang（新疆，吐魯番）), as well as small kingdoms in present-day Afghanistan and northern India. The Tang Dynasty was in its early years and engaged in war with its western neighbors. With political and military issues unresolved, there was no room for civilian visits. Xuanzang's petition was poorly timed, revealing his naivete as a scholar unfamiliar with politics. 

        Despite this setback, Xuanzang did not abandon his dream. He took advantage of a period of natural disasters, when the Tang government allowed people to leave their homes to seek a living. He traveled through Liangzhou（凉州） (present-day Wuwei, Gansu（甘肅）) and Guazhou (present-day Anxi County, Gansu), braving treacherous mountain passes and evading the watchful eyes of local officials, who were strictly enforcing the government's orders. He embarked on his westward journey. 

        This suggests that Xuanzang was not a weak, indecisive scholar. How else could we explain his determination to risk his life, take a roundabout route, face the elements, and endure a long and arduous journey? 

3.      Erudition and Humility, Winning the Respect of All Schools 

        In 632, Xuanzang finally reached Nalanda, the highest institution of learning in India at the time. The head of the monastery was the renowned monk, Shilian. The 10,000 scholars at Nalanda studied both Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhist teachings, as well as Indian classical philosophy, such as the “Vedas,” along with logic, phonetics, medicine, and crafts. Over a thousand monks were proficient in 20 scriptures and treatises, over 50 in 30, and 10, including Xuanzang, were proficient in 50. Shilian, who had been in seclusion for a long time, was impressed by Xuanzang's sincerity and made an exception by allowing him to lecture. Xuanzang spent five years at the monastery. 

        In 638, Xuanzang embarked on another round of frequent travels, shuttling between Nalanda and Bengal and other parts of India, visiting and exchanging knowledge. Xuanzang was a tireless scholar, but he did not simply read books. In 640, he wrote “Huisong Lun,” reconciling the conflicting doctrines of the Madhyamaka and Yogacara schools of Mahayana Buddhism, impressing the senior monk, Shiziguang, of Nalanda. 

        In 642, a Buddhist practitioner known as a “heretic,” a follower of the “Worldly Doctrine,” posted 40 teachings on the gates of Nalanda, openly challenging the Mahayana school. Panic ensued in the monastery, and no one dared to confront this brash individual. Xuanzang stepped forward, confidently engaging in debate, silencing the challenger and gaining widespread acclaim. 

        In 642, Xuanzang also published his treatise,  (Refutation of Erroneous Views). King Harshavardhana of India hosted a grand Dharma assembly for Xuanzang, attended by 18 kings, 3,000 monks from both Mahayana and Hinayana schools, 2,000 Brahmins, and followers of other religions. The assembly lasted 18 days, and no one could refute his arguments. Xuanzang was revered as the “Mahayana Heaven” by the Mahayana school and the “Liberation Heaven” by the Hinayana school. 

        Xuanzang's scholarly achievements stemmed from his open mind. His familiarity with the teachings of both Mahayana and Hinayana schools allowed him to synthesize them, leading to the “Huisong Lun” that impressed his fellow monks and enabling him to navigate debates with opposing schools with ease and confidence. 

4.       Returning Home, Rejecting a Career in Politics 

        In 643, Xuanzang began his journey back home. 

        In 644, he reached Khotan (present-day Xinjiang) and was about to enter his homeland. But he was apprehensive about his future fate. He worried that his 657 volumes of Buddhist scriptures would soon reach China, and his past transgressions – leaving the country without a permit – might hinder the propagation of Buddhism. He petitioned Emperor Taizong for understanding and forgiveness for his previous actions.  

        Xuanzang's worries were unfounded. He still saw himself as the same impetuous, fugitive scholar from years past. He failed to realize that his 17 years of experience had changed his standing. Emperor Taizong, far from reprimanding him, held a banquet in Luoyang to welcome him and offer him his condolences. This was in 645. The emperor said, “I am about to lead my troops into battle. I hope you will accompany me and share your experiences of the 110 countries you have visited over the past 17 years along the way.” Xuanzang, a devout Buddhist, could not bear the thought of bloodshed and declined, citing his status as a monk who should not be on the battlefield. Emperor Taizong then arranged for him to translate scriptures at Hongfu Temple. 

        It seems unbelievable that an emperor about to go to war would have the leisure to listen to tales from distant lands. A more plausible explanation is that the astute Emperor Taizong, by bringing Xuanzang into the city, hoped to gain more information about the Western Regions. If Xuanzang had fallen into enemy hands, they might have extracted valuable intelligence from him, giving the enemy an advantage. Since Xuanzang had only gone abroad to study Buddhism, his unauthorized departure was not a serious offense. The emperor was simply extending a courtesy. 

        In 648, Emperor Taizong wrote the “Preface to the Sacred Teachings of the Great Tang Tripitaka” for the scriptures Xuanzang translated, urging him once again to return to secular life and join him in governing the state. Xuanzang remained steadfast in his resolve, dedicating himself to translating scriptures until his death in 664, at the age of 62. He translated a total of 75 scriptures in 1,335 volumes. Besides Buddhist scriptures, Xuanzang also translated “Laozi” (道德经) into Sanskrit and introduced it to India. His disciples recorded his accounts of his travels in “The Great Tang Records on the Western Regions” (大唐西域记), a 12-volume work. 

5.       The Spirit of the Intellectual, Realizing His Life's Vision 

        Reading about Xuanzang's life, we realize that the Xuanzang depicted in “Journey to the West” is vastly different from the historical figure. If the young Xuanzang's journey to the West was an impulsive act of idealistic pursuit, then the Xuanzang who returned home after years of hardship abroad and rejected political office was a sincere expression of an intellectual's dedication to scholarship. It would be more accurate to say that Xuanzang exemplified the spirit of the intellectual rather than being out of touch with the world. He possessed an independent spirit. Otherwise, how could he have resisted the allure of wealth and power, the repeated invitations of Emperor Taizong, and remained true to his convictions? 

        Buddhism, in our perception, is a religion of fate, teaching people to accept their destiny and live according to their karmic circumstances. The monks in “Journey to the West,” when faced with danger, would cower behind Sun Wukong's protective spell, trembling, twirling their prayer beads, and muttering “Amitabha Buddha.” However, the historical Xuanzang fearlessly pursued, fulfilled, and perfected his vision for life, pushing the boundaries of his existence. Was his dedication not another interpretation and practice of the profound spirit of Buddhism? 

        One journey to the West, two distinct Xuanzangs. “Journey to the West” is a fictional work, and we should not be overly critical of its historical accuracy. The portrayal of Xuanzang is Wu Cheng'en's critique of the society he lived in and the scholars he encountered. Wu Cheng'en was a man of the Ming Dynasty, writing about the Tang Dynasty. He may not have had any personal issue with Xuanzang; his story was simply a vehicle for his own observations. This makes me wonder: which version of Xuanzang are the intellectuals of our time closer to, the historical figure or Wu Cheng'en's creation?